Introductory digital image processing : a remote sensing perspective

Preface xiii Acknowledgments xvi Chapter 1--Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing 1 In situ Data Collection 0 In situ Data Collection Error 0 Remote Sensing Data Collection 0 Observations About Remote Sensing 0 Remote Sensing Advantages and Limitations 0 The Remote Sensing Process 0 Statement of the Problem 0 Identification of In situ and Remote Sensing Data Requirement 0 Remote Sensing Data Collection 0 Remote Sensing Data Analysis 0 Information Presentation 0 An Earth Resource Analysis Perspective 0 Book Organization 0 References 0 Chapter 2--Remote Sensing Data Collection 0 Analog (Hard-copy) Image Digitization 0 Digital Image Terminology 0 Microdensitometer Digitization 0 Video Digitization 0 Digitized National Aerial Photography Program Data 0 Linear and Area Array Charge-Coupled-Device (CCD) Digitization 0 Digitization Considerations 0 Digital Remote Sensor Data Collection 0 Multispectral Imaging Using Discrete Detectors and Scanning Mirrors 0 Earth Resource Technology Satellites (ERTS) and Landsat Sensor Systems 0 NOAA Multispectral Scanner Systems 0 ORBIMAGE, Inc. and NASA Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-View Sensor (SeaWiFS) 0 Aircraft Multispectral Scanners 0 Multispectral Imaging Using Linear Arrays 0 SPOT Sensor Systems 0 Indian Remote Sensing Systems 0 Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER)i ; Very High-Resolution Linear Array Remote Sensing Systems 0 Imaging Spectrometry Using Linear and Area Arrays 0 Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) 0 Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager 3 (CASI 3) 0 Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS) 0 Digital Frame Cameras 0 Digital Frame Camera Data Collection 0 Emerge, Inc. Digital Sensor System (DSS) 0 Satellite Photographic Systems 0 Russian SPIN-2 TK-350 and KVR-1000 Cameras 0 U.S. Space Shuttle Photography 0 Digital Image Data Formats 0 Band Interleaved by Pixel Format 0 Band Interleaved by Line Format 0 Band Sequential (BSQ) Format 0 Summary 0 References 0 Chapter 3--Digital Image Processing System Hardware and Software Considerations 0 Digital Image Processing System Considerations 0 Central Processing Units (CPUs), Personal Computers, Workstations and Mainframes 0 Personal Computer 0 Computer Workstations 0 Mainframe Computers 0 Read Only Memory, Random Access Memory, Serial and Parallel Image Processing, and Arithmetic Coprocessor 0 Read Only Memory (ROM) and Random Access Memory (RAM) 0 Serial and Parallel Image Processing 0 Arithmetic Coprocessor 0 Mode of Operation and Interface 0 Mode of Operation 0 Graphical-User-Interface 0 Computer Operating System and Compiler(s) 0 Operating System 0 Compiler 0 Mass Storage of Remote Sensor Data and Archiving Considerations 0 Rapid Access Mass Storage 0 Archiving Considerations - Longevity 0 Computer Display Spatial and Color Resolution 0 Computer Screen Display Resolution 0 Computer Screen Color Resolution 0 Important Image Processing Functions 0 Commercial and Publicly Available Digital Image Processing Systems 0 Digital Image Processing and the National Spatial Data Infrastructure 0 Sources of Digital Image Processing Systems 0 References 0 Chapter 4--Image Quality Assessment and Statistical Evaluation 0 Image Processing Mathematical Notation 0 Sampling Theory ; Histogram and Its Significance to Digital Image Processing of Remote Sensor Data 0 Image Metadata 0 Viewing Pixel Brightness Values at Specific Locations or Within a Geographic Area 0 Cursor Evaluation of Individual Pixel Brightness Values 0 Two-and Three-dimensional Evaluation of Pixel Brightness Values Within a Geo- graphic Area 0 Univariate Descriptive Image Statistics 0 Measure of Central Tendency in Remote Sensor Data 0 Measures of Dispersion 0 Measures of Distribution (Histogram) Asymmetry and Peak Sharpness 0 Multivariate Image Statistics 0 Covariance in Multiple Bands of Remote Sensor Data 0 Correlation Between Multiple Bands of Remote Sensor Data 0 Feature Space Plots 0 Geostatistical Analysis 0 Relationship Between Geostatistical Analysis, Autocorrelation, and Kriging 0 Calculating Average Semivariance 0 Empirical Semivariogram 0 References 0 Chapter 5--Initial Display Alternatives and Scientific Visualization 0 Image Display Considerations 0 Black-and-White Hard-copy Image Display 0 Line Printer Brightness Maps 0 Laser or Ink-jet Printer/plotter Brightness Maps 0 Temporary Video Image Display 0 Black and White and Color Brightness Maps 0 Bitmapped Graphics 0 RGB Color Coordinate System 0 8-bit Color Look-up Tables 0 24-bit Color Look-up Tables 0 Color Composites 0 Merging Different Types of Remotely Sensed Data for Effective Visual Display 0 Band Substitution 0 Color Space Transformation and Substitution 0 Principal Component Substitution 0 Pixel by Pixel Addition of High-Frequency Information 0 Smoothing Filter-based Intensity Modulation (SFM) Image Fusion 0 Distance, Area and Shape Measurement 0 Distance Measurement 0 Area Measurement 0 Shape Measurement 0 References 0 Chapter 6--Electromagnetic Radiation Principles and Radiometric Correction 0 Electromagnetic Energy Interactions 0 Conduction, Convection, and Radiation 0 Electromagnetic Radiation Models ; Wave Model of Electromagnetic Energy 0 The Particle Model - Radiation from Atomic Structures 0 Atmospheric Energy-Matter Interactions 0 Refraction 0 Scattering 0 Absorption 0 Reflectance 0 Terrain Energy-Matter Interactions 0 Hemispherical Reflectance, Absorptance, and Transmittance 0 Radiant Flux Density 0 Energy-Matter Interactions in the Atmosphere Once Again 0 Energy-Matter Interactions at the Sensor System 0 Correcting Remote Sensing System Detector Error 0 Random Bad Pixels (Shot Noise) 0 Line or Column Drop-outs 0 Partial Line or Column Drop-outs 0 Line-start Problems 0 N-line Striping 0 Remote Sensing Atmospheric Correction 0 Unnecessary Atmospheric Correction 0 Necessary Atmospheric Correction 0 Types of Atmospheric Correction 0 Absolution Radiometric Correction of Atmospheric Attenuation 0 Relative Radiometric Correction of Atmospheric Attenuation 0 Correcting for Slope and Aspect Effects 0 The Cosine Correction 0 The Minnaert Correction 0 A Statistical-Empirical Correction 0 The C Correction 0 References 0 Chapter 7--Geometric Correction 0 Internal and External Geometric Error 0 Internal Geometric Error 0 External Geometric Error 0 Types of Geometric Correction 0 Image-to-Map Rectification 0 Image-to-Image Registration 0 Hybrid Approach to Image Rectification/Registration 0 Image-to-Map Geometric Rectification Logic 0 Example of Image-to-Map Rectification 0 Mosaicking 0 Mosaicking Rectified Images 0 References 0 Chapter 8--Image Enhancement 0 Image Reduction and Magnification 0 Image Reduction 0 Image Magnification 0 Transects (Spatial Profiles) 0 Spectral Profiles 0 Contrast Enhancement 0 Linear Contrast Enhancement 0 Nonlinear Contrast Enhancement 0 Band Ratioing 0 Spatial Filtering 0 Spatial Convolution Filtering 0 The Fourier Transform 0 Principal Components Analysis 0 Vegetation Transformations (Indices) ; Dominant Factors Controlling Leaf Reflectance 0 Vegetation Indices 0 Texture Transformations 0 First-Order Statistics in the Spatial Domain 0 Second-Order Statistics in the Spatial Domain 0 Texture Units as Elements of a Texture Spectrum 0 Fractal Dimension as a Measure of Spatial Complexity and/or Texture 0 Texture Statistics Based on the Semivariogram 0 References 0 Chapter 9--Thematic Information Extraction: Pattern Recognition Techniques 0 Supervised Classification 0 Land-use and Land-cover Classification Schemes 0 Training Site Selection and Statistics Extraction 0 Selecting the Optimum Bands for Image Classification: Feature Selection 0 Select the Appropriate Classification Algorithm 0 Unsupervised Classification 0 Unsupervised Classification Using the Chain Method 0 Unsupervised Classification Using the ISODATA Method 0 Unsupervised Cluster Busting 0 Classification Based on Object-oriented Image Segmentation 0 Object-oriented Image Segmentation and Classification 0 Object-oriented Considerations 0 Unsupervised Cluster Busting 0 Fuzzy Classification 0 Incorporating Ancillary Data in the Classification Process 0 Problems Associated with Ancillary Data 0 Approaches to Incorporating Ancillary Data to Improve Remote Sensing Classification Maps 0 References 0 Chapter 10--Information Extraction Using Expert Systems and Neural Networks 0 Expert Systems 0 Expert System User Interface 0 Creating the Knowledge Base (or Rule-based Domain) 0 Inference Engine 0 Online Databases 0 Examples of Expert Systems Applied to Remote Sensor Data 0 Advantages of Expert Systems 0 Artificial Neural Networks 0 Components and Characteristics of a Typical Artificial Neural Network Used to Extract Information from Remotely Sensed Data 0 Advantages of Using an Artificial Neural Network for Extracting Information from Remotely Sensed Data 0 Limitations of Neural Networks for Processing Remotely Sensed Data ; Neural Networks Versus Expert Systems Developed Using Machine-learning 0 References 0 Chapter 11--Thematic Information Extraction: Hyperspectral Image Analysis 0 Multispectral versus Hyperspectral Data Collection 0 General Steps Used to Extract Information from Hyperspectral Data 0 NASA's Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectroradiometer (AVIRIS) 0 Subset Study Area from Flightlines 0 Initial Image Quality Assessment 0 Visual Individual Band Examination 0 Visual Examination of Color Composite Images Consisting of Three Bands 0 Animation 0 Statistical Individual Band Examination 0 Radiometric Calibration 0 In situ Data Collection 0 Radiosondes 0 Radiative Transfer-based Atmospheric Correction 0 Band-by-band Spectral Polishing 0 Empirical Line Calibration Atmospheric Correction 0 Geometric Correction of Hyperspectral Remote Sensor Data 0 Reducing the Dimensionality of Hyperspectral Data While Retaining Its Information Content 0 Minimum Noise Fraction (MNF) Transformation 0 Endmember Determination - Locating the Spectrally Purest Pixels 0 Pixel Purity Index (PPI) Mapping 0 N-dimensional Endmember Visualization 0 Methods of Mapping and Matching Using Hyperspectral Data 0 Spectral Angle Mapper 0 Subpixel Classification (Linear Spectral Unmixing) 0 Spectroscopic Library Matching Techniques 0 Indices Developed for Use with Hyperspectral Data 0 Normalized Difference Vegetation Index 0 Narrow-band Derivative-based Vegetation Indices 0 Yellowness Index (YI) 0 Physiological Reflectance Index (PRI) 0 Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) 0 Red-edge Position (REP) Determination 0 Crop Chlorophyll Content Prediction (TCARI/OSAVI) 0 Derivative Spectroscopy 0 References 0 Chapter 12--Digital Change Detection 0 General Steps Required to Perform Change Detection 0 Change Detection Geographic Region of Interest 0 Change Detection Time Period 0 Select an Appropriate Land-use/Land-cover Classification System ; Hard and/or Fuzzy Change Detection Logic 0 Per-pixel or Object-oriented Change Detection 0 Remote Sensing System Considerations 0 Environmental Characteristics of Importance When Performing Change Detection 0 Select an Appropriate Change Detection Algorithm 0 Change Detection Using Write Function Memory Insertion 0 Multi-date Composite Image Change Detection 0 Image Algebra Change Detection 0 Post-classification Comparison Change Detection 0 Change Detection Using A Binary Change Mask Applied to Date 2 0 Change Detection Using An Ancillary Data Source as Date 1 0 Spectral Change Vector Analysis 0 Chi-square Transformation Change Detection 0 Cross-correlation Change Detection 0 Visual On-screen Change Detection and Digitization 0 Atmospheric Correction: When is it Necessary for Classification and/or 0 Change Detection? 0 Atmospheric Correction is Necessary 0 Atmospheric Correction is Unnecessary 0 Summary 0 References 0 Chapter 13--Thematic Map Accuracy Assessment 0 Approaches to Performing Land-use/Land-cover Map Accuracy Assessment 0 Sources of Error in Remote Sensing-derived Thematic Products 0 The Error Matrix 0 Training versus Ground Reference Test Information 0 Sample Size 0 Sample Size Based on Binomial Probability Theory 0 Sample Size Based on Multinomial Distribution 0 Sampling Design (Scheme) 0 Simple Random Sampling 0 Systematic Sampling 0 Stratified Random Sampling 0 Stratified Systematic Unaligned Sampling 0 Cluster Sampling 0 Obtaining Ground Reference Information at Locations Using A Response Design 0 Evaluation of Error Matrices 0 Descriptive Evaluation of Error Matrices 0 Discrete Multivariate Analytical Techniques Applied to the Error Matrix 0 Fuzzification of the Error Matrix 0 Geostatistical Analysis to Assess the Accuracy of Remote Sensing-derived Information 0 Image Metadata and Lineage Information for Remote Sensing-derived Products 0 Individual Image Metadata ; Lineage of Remote Sensing-derived Products 0 References 0 Index 0